“She will control my son”: Navigating womanhood, English and social mobility in India

Through its colonial, class- and caste-based history, English in India has come to be seen as a powerful resource that opens doors for those who ‘have’ it holds back do not. For women, ostensibly offers various promises addition employment: progressiveness ‘empowerment’; the potential upward mobility through marriage. Yet, conversion of capital English-speaking Indian women proves intensely complex practice, many find themselves forced navigate between shifting moral regimes attached ‘tradition’ ‘modernity’. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork an NGO Delhi free training ‘disadvantaged youth’, this paper explores how is managed by young striving attain middle classness English, their class, caste gender positionings are negotiated across particular time-space configurations they seek become speakers. भारत में अपने उपनिवेश, वर्ग और वर्ण पर आधारित इतिहास के द्वारा अंग्रेजी एक प्रभावशाली संसाधन रूप देखी जाती है। ऐसा जिसे प्राप्त करने दरवाज़े खुल सकते हैं, न प्रगति कठिन है । महिलाओं लिए जाहिरा तौर नौकरी अतिरिक्त एवं सशक्तिकरण की संभावना पेश करती तथा विवाह सामाजिक गतिशीलता परन्तु व्यव्हार इस पूँजी का परिवर्तन अत्यंत जटिल अनेक महिलाएँ परंपरा आधुनिकता लगातार बदलती हुई नैतिक नीतिओ संचालन पे मजबूर होती हैं। यह लेख दिल्ली मुफ्त पढ़ाने वाले किए हुए नृवंशविज्ञानिक अनुसंधान भाषी बनके पामने प्रयास वाली युवा महिलाऐं कैसे समय स्थल अनुसार वर्ग, वर्ण, लिंग मोलभाव इसका बयान करता Divya was divorcee had returned from her marital home with children live mother not long before I arrived at NGO. She attended 10 am class and, like peers, been attending these classes several months when joined. This only design – co-educational but because better suited schedules. Primarily housewives mothers, time meant could send school, housework, return cook lunch. ran small shop mother, alone were responsible supporting family since father absent sibling chronically ill. joined attempt more stable job, care for, nobody help she struggled make progress. One morning, discussing practice home, proudly recounted recently overheard man speaking phone shop. They chatted, gave him number so he practice. As told appeared visibly proud herself. Her pride, my eyes, understandable. saw it, followed rules laid out constantly self-improve, motivated, keep learning (see Highet & Del Percio, 2021a). And yet, judging crestfallen face upon reaction other did get support expected. The impressed. Many shared glances disapproval, others tutted loudly, some asked, concerned looks, why offered man. chastised, me, behaving ways appropriate (divorced) woman. transgressed expectations respectable woman should behave offering barely knew, thus any ‘value’ may have hoped gain such actions overlooked. Divya's story provides insight into met attempted strategize web clashing logics order provide comfortable futures. English-teaching NGO, enrolled there least partly due belief necessary (or children's) social mobility. But attempts shore up attain) certain level classness, unfortunate perceived misstep shows, always risky, times engendering unwanted consequences. risk, will argue, fundamentally rooted discourses gender. students certainly understanding key brighter future: history language shaped reason, education, money However, demonstrate, form conceal dynamic fluctuations (re)valuations mobilised speakers moments. Taking cue Tupas, argue deeper interrogation valuation ‘inextricably embedded lives [..] speakers’ (2020, p. 237). To this, explore struggles pursuit acquisition manage newly acquired capital, focusing particularly shifts different spatio-temporal which move interpret practices, co-articulation interanimating (Chun, 2019) caste, In doing so, demonstrate enmeshed (and often contradictory) emerge colonial neoliberal framings ‘English’, disputed notions femininity, modernity tradition among heterogenous classes. While widely circulating discourse finds roots British occupation, further exacerbated new economic laws 1990s. neoliberalisation education sharp, heralded driver economy (Chakravarti, 2013). Following reforms, boom private English-medium schools coaching institutes meet growing demand access (Fernandes, 2006). privatisation ‘big business’ led readjustment towards becoming ‘an arena individual achievement success’ 2013, 42). transformation, ‘rethought entrepreneurial selves rational choices’ (Zimmermann Flubacher, 2017, 209), managing own success continuous commodifiable skills (Urciuoli, 2008) English. Within framing, accountability shifted away inequalities or state failures placed squarely shoulders flexible, competitive, (English-speaking) actor. would ‘escape’ ever-present. anecdotes acquaintances failing secure jobs lack English; rumours no qualifications being hired spot. Here, coveted ‘key material modern world’ (Park, 2011, 443), incompetence framed ‘the thing holding people enjoying benefits globalization: mobility, jobs, betterment, movement “better” culture’ (Proctor, 2014, 307). Constructed such, problem inequality can ‘ostensibly easily rectified’ (ibid) allegedly one exchange economic, cultural symbolic words, discourses, ‘rather than overcoming inequality, individuals just need work appear right side divide work, irrelevant categories dynamics’ (Kraft 2020, p.3). student key. Liberalisation brought play policies also ‘set motion broader shift national political sparked ‘changing trends consumption lifestyles, aspirations’ 2006, 29) classness. crucial component strategising remains formation boundaries. ‘structural marker identity’, distinction well skilled (ibid, p.69), embrace middle-class demonstrates ‘relationship outside, external world represented alternatively varying contexts Westernized, Western, global’ (ibid). classes, however, far homogenous, scholars dubious about narratives claim liberalisation resulted ‘in massively expanded, homogenous mass wealthy, classes’ (Ganguly-Scrase Scrase, 2009, 2; Fernandes, while heterogeneity addressed literature, role interanimation relatively underacknowledged (although see Nakassis, 2016 Hall, 2019, 2021). acknowledging importance foundations, considers ‘a category empirical condition’ rather project practice’ (Liechty, 2003, 21) following Donner De Neve, emphasises ‘everyday practices idioms middle-classness constructed expressed’ (2011, p.11). Middle process, ‘must performed, narrated put display become’ (Brosius, 2010, 263; Liechty, 2003) making’ (Donner 13). way, we requires money, depends ‘linguistic aesthetic knowledge respectability’ 33). line Bourdieu's (1977) habitus, extends equally embodied use body navigating spaces: visible unease escalator mall indication familiarity, ‘marks one's incongruous very spaces define class’ (McGuire, 132). aspirational youth invest wide range commodities strategy many, means investing forms element centres offer ‘personality development’ (often alongside English) encompasses style taste manners bodily (Highet 2021b; McGuire, 2013) obtain savoir-faire required ‘to conform standard liberalizing 96). concepts ‘speculative’ (Duchêne Daveluy, 2015) ‘fluctuating’ (Hassemer Garrido, 2020) cannot guarantee returns. On contrary, see, dependent whole host intersecting factors grasped focus speaker conditions aspiring converting cultural, additional promises. First, ideological alignment liberalism (Durrani, 2012), ‘empowerment’ heavily what Deshpande calls fallacy equating patriarchy oppression Western exposure (especially influence colonialism) progress’ 141). Second, marriage (Chatterjee Schluter, 2020). Indeed, Sandhu argues, brides ‘economically prospect’ (2018, 64), exacerbates subordination already operational patriarchally constrained lives’ 75) Hindi-medium educated result spousal contempt even ostracism unable good competency tandem advantages, spaces, deeply intertwined femininity. Chidsey's study prestigious girls’ schools, participants feeling pressure speak (only) understate abilities Hindi, ‘embody prestige’ 42) part gendered performance, ‘mediate balance displays “appropriate” femininity linguistic deemed “cool” peers’, including local languages, slang profanities, boys policed pp. 49–50). using within projects, idealised types (upper class) Such works drawing ideologies construe languages refined, less vulgar (Fanon, 1967), allowing embody characteristics. We here tension Inoue (2004, 40) refers ‘national modernity’ ‘embodiment nation‘s past tradition’ men ‘of present “progress”’. too, ‘“pure” uncontaminated feminine speech’ valorised, time, ‘progress’ opposed commonly collocated ‘tradition’, Hindi. illustrates contradiction global associated imagined which, difficult value opposing visions nation languages) differently weighted depending align either corrupted morality (Hall, 2019). Of course, policing women's behaviour restricted speech, entire semiotic packaging womanhood, move, interactions men, clothing. Nakassis argues his exploration ‘style’ (of component) amongst male college South India, dynamics inexistent female peers associations pragmatics ‘resolutely problematic normative femininity’ (2016, p.15). This, control containment woman's body, sexuality particularly, underwrite patriarchal economies hierarchies men's status respectability plays with, undermines refashions’ Women's relationship ambivalent one, contend delicate balancing markers homeliness vs. boldness 181). These ‘ideological sites contradiction’ reconcile must continually managed. hand, then, (elite) successfully perform femininity; (non-elite) paying careful attention ‘style’), precisely fear adhering ‘appropriate’ All points dance learn choreographed around colonialism steps ever-shifting space. (2018) elite where, positions stable, Hindi ‘vulgar’ uses) threatens performances teachers) indexicality all features) entailed evaluations highly engaging practices. indexes alignments progressiveness, here, stances sit uncomfortably ‘traditional’ womanhood tied caste. risks inherent ever-present concern, found complex, contradictory situations negotiate carefully negative Thus, seeks dismantle ‘powerful vehicle socio-economic mobility’ (Jayadeva, 2018) fluctuation evaluate competing simultaneously navigate. complexity draw data collected over 4 (2018–2019) branch large year personality development ‘disadvantaged’ drive combat un(der)employment. courses open anyone age 15, attend daily (Monday–Saturday) 1 h 45 min sessions. sessions run ‘facilitators’, whom Indian, Rupal, introduce next section, previously majority hailed families encountered financial difficulties, parents (predominantly fathers) ranged governmental clerical accountancy rickshaw driving wage labour. Located outskirts Delhi, close Haryana border, area rarely frequented tourists, notable hub centres, posters pasted every spare piece wall advertising ‘tiffin’ (packed lunch/dinner) services guest houses numerous relocate areas outside (also advertised) paid train competitive university entrance exams (which afford). Education is, reason huge migration states. city, booming tourist trade, industries constant labour, attracts highest numbers intra-national migration. born raised (grand)parents migrated states, notably Uttar Pradesh Bihar. Although common throughout ‘promise’ seeking arrive smaller cities, villages prosperous states hope improving But, city ‘represents promise freedom opportunity’ imaginary’, deep layers stark (Heller et al., 2015, 1) massive wealth stands extreme poverty, between. location spatially symbolically ‘between-place’ especially interesting vantage point exploring fluctuations. When facilitators, unmarried early twenties. completed government1 school shortly after, improve after struggling school. excelled course invited undergo in-house facilitator 3 years arrived. Rupal poster child ‘highest caste’ (Brahmin), older sisters grown poverty.2 never left most Rupal's childhood, worked factory ‘like remember 20 rupees per day was/ don't know/ means/ low’. elder sister dropped 14 continue reasoning that, voicing, ‘if learns, youngest maybe take us bright future’. teenagers, another began tuition younger family's dire situation eventually shift. 2018, tailoring shop, teacher contributed enormously income. member wider community too: ‘even village girl speaks English’. pride both felt palpable stories told. me anecdote parents’ demonstrated surprise ‘foreigners’ showed realised English: Extract Appendix transcription conventions) 2 5 6 7 So quickly please somebody wants something/so ask// it's normal asking prices understand/ call then they/so talk surprised/ them communicate so/ selling something surprised that/ oho (smile voice) nice your daughter encountering levels hardly rare occurrence documented persistence stereotypes paint Indians competently (e.g., centre (Pal Buzzanell, 2013)). interpretation, does arise Indianness. With interjection ‘oho’ (used express surprise, wonder), accompanied widening eyes sing-song voice, deixis (‘here’ ‘your daughter’), interpretation customers’ emanating spatial juxtaposition market seller, race infused: didn't expect here. recognises (through teacher), prestige. understandably against odds. spoke length perceives provided her. feel categorisation ‘English speaker’, marriageable age, knew benefits: deployed ‘better’ husband. A short met, searching husband sister. potentially suitable match, learned man's second marry brother, interested Rupal. refused behalf suitor, secondary level, He know 12th pass [completed school] graduated [from college] same mine/ asked no/ teacher/ [Rupal's parents] denied themselves/ no/no/ confer privileged status, used card partner arranged Chatterjee Schluter note, lacking ‘concrete activities exchanged profit’ 74). context Kolkata, where ‘strong roles link household duties diminishes likelihood Kolkata earned income’ (ibid), widespread resource’ accorded leverage able negotiations, despite family. immediately comment, shows becomes unstable meets describes parents, agree son, differences// one/ er happened two times/ said educated/ our son under/ under only/ knows like/ allow anything else/ 8 9 yes (smiles) happens here/ if than/ husband/ happens/ think oh lot you ask wife 15 16 17 feels disrespect/ happen er/ doesn't blaming 19 21 going hand is/ everything knows/ cooking blaming// wields fluctuate families. first anecdote, (lines 1–4), loses leverage. mean Quite opposite superiority granted process fractal recursivity (Irvine Gal, 2000), indexical reproduced, positioning superior class. poses non-English suitor threat losing upper hand: disrespect’ 11–14). educated, positioned refuse follow norms, controlling, un-submissive wife. rejection reflects how, some, celebrated torchbearer progress, carrier decay’ 498) (and, explicitly, wifehood). Importantly, traditional wifehood evoked position. mentioned, belongs ‘highest’ Brahmins virtue chastity historically heightened ensure endogamous reproduction therefore ‘purity’ 1993, 579; Velaskar, 2016). vegetarianism menstruation taboos values interactions. Brahmin traditionally expected demure chaste index deviation threatening. family, acknowledges allowed interactional sisters. described pursued